References

Hecht, M. H. et al. Detection of perchlorate and the soluble chemistry of martian soil at the Phoenix lander site. Science 325 (5936), 64–67. doi:10.1126/science.1172466

0.4–0.6 % perchlorate by mass; ice table about 5 cm deep; pH 7.7

Glavin, D. P. et al. Evidence for perchlorates and the origin of chlorinated hydrocarbons detected by SAM at the Rocknest aeolian deposit in Gale Crater. J. Geophys. Res. Planets 118 (10), 1955–1973. doi:10.1002/jgre.20144

Perchlorate at Gale Crater, far from the Phoenix site

Davila, A. F., Willson, D., Coates, J. D., McKay, C. P. Perchlorate on Mars: a chemical hazard and a resource for humans. Int. J. Astrobiology 12 (4), 321–325. doi:10.1017/S1473550413000189

0.5–1 % perchlorate; hazard to crew; proposes biochemical removal that also yields oxygen

Morgan, G. A. et al. Availability of subsurface water-ice resources in the northern mid-latitudes of Mars. Nature Astronomy 5, 230–236. doi:10.1038/s41550-020-01290-z

Shallow ice as the habitat water source

Cannon, K. M. et al. Mars global simulant MGS-1: a Rocknest-based open standard for basaltic martian regolith simulants. Icarus 317, 470–478. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2018.08.019

Martian regolith is basaltic, hence basaltic scoria on the bench

Haberle, R. M., DeVincenzi, D. L. On the stability of liquid water on present day Mars. Mars Global Surveyor Workshop, Boulder. NTRS 20010084314

Surface pressure and temperature do not allow stable liquid water

NASA Glenn Research Center. Mars. Beginner's Guide to Aeronautics. grc.nasa.gov

Surface gravity 3.7 m/s², 0.37 g

NASA Science. Mars: Facts. science.nasa.gov

Surface temperature from about 20 °C down to about −153 °C

Coates, J. D., Achenbach, L. A. Microbial perchlorate reduction: rocket-fuelled metabolism. Nature Reviews Microbiology 2 (7), 569–580. doi:10.1038/nrmicro926

Pathway through perchlorate reductase and chlorite dismutase

Ettwig, K. F. et al. Bacterial oxygen production in the dark. Frontiers in Microbiology 3, 273. doi:10.3389/fmicb.2012.00273

Chlorite-derived oxygen is respired by the same cells

Mehta-Kolte, M. G. et al. Mechanism of H₂S oxidation by the dissimilatory perchlorate-reducing microorganism Azospira suillum PS. mBio 8 (1), e02023-16. doi:10.1128/mBio.02023-16

Strain PS grown at 37 °C on lactate with perchlorate; lactate and acetate as donors

Salinero, K. et al. Metabolic analysis of the soil microbe Dechloromonas aromatica str. RCB. BMC Genomics 10, 351. doi:10.1186/1471-2164-10-351

Strain RCB is a soil microbe that reduces perchlorate

Ahmad, M. et al. Biochar as a sorbent for contaminant management in soil and water: a review. Chemosphere 99, 19–33. doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2013.10.071

Biochar as an adsorbent in water treatment

Raposo, F., De La Rubia, M. A., Borja, R. Methylene blue number as useful indicator to evaluate the adsorptive capacity of granular activated carbon in batch mode. J. Hazardous Materials 165 (1–3), 291–299. doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2008.09.106

Methylene blue as an indicator of carbon adsorption

Penn State College of Earth and Mineral Sciences. EGEE 439, 4.1 Biomass Pyrolysis. courses.ems.psu.edu

Slow pyrolysis near 500 °C: about 25 % char, 35 % liquid, 40 % gas

Daugaard, D. E., Brown, R. C. Enthalpy for pyrolysis for several types of biomass. Energy & Fuels 17 (4), 934–939. doi:10.1021/ef020260x

Energy to pyrolyse dry biomass near 500 °C: 0.8–1.6 MJ/kg

Lemmon, E. W., Bell, I. H., Huber, M. L., McLinden, M. O. Thermophysical Properties of Fluid Systems. NIST Chemistry WebBook, SRD 69. webbook.nist.gov

Water at 1 atm: 84.0 kJ/kg as liquid at 20 °C, 3488.7 kJ/kg as steam at 500 °C

German Toilet Organization. Emergency WASH, T.9 Slow Sand Filtration. emergency-wash.org

Slow sand filtration rate 0.1–0.4 m/h

Ewert, M. K., Chen, T. T., Powell, C. D. (eds.) Life Support Baseline Values and Assumptions Document. NASA/TP-2015-218570/REV2, February 2022. NTRS 20210024855

Oxygen 0.895 kg/CM-d (Table 3-31); hygiene wastewater 5.53 and 10.17 kg/CM-d (Table 4-21); trash 1.39 kg/CM-d and its moisture (Tables 4-28, 4-29); ISS water processor expendables about 472 kg/year (section 4.3.3)

NASA. NASA Spaceflight Human-System Standard, Volume 2: Human Factors, Habitability, and Environmental Health. Rev. E, May 2025. NTRS 20250004555

Requirements V2 6004, 6026, 6046, 6050, 6051, 6052, 6053, 6153

Lowe, K. Establishing Crew Exposure Limits of Martian Dust. NASA, 21 July 2026. nasa.gov

Martian dust below 10 µm: 0.1 mg/m³, 24-hour average, exposures up to 30 days

US Environmental Protection Agency. Secondary Drinking Water Standards: Guidance for Nuisance Chemicals. epa.gov

Chloride 250 mg/L, salty taste

COSPAR Panel on Planetary Protection. COSPAR Policy on Planetary Protection. Space Research Today, January 2026. cosparhq.cnes.fr

Planetary protection framework for terrestrial organisms